Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in the Lives of Migrant and Displaced Women

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) poses a serious threat to migrant, refugee, and forcibly displaced women, and these risks are often intensified by forced migration and displacement (UNHCR, 2022). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately one in three women globally have experienced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in their lifetime (WHO, 2021). For women affected by migration, displacement, and conflict, these risks can increase further due to heightened vulnerability, insecurity, and the destabilising effects of forced movement (Murphy et al., 2021; UNHCR, 2022).

The increased risk of SGBV during forced migration has been linked to overcrowded living conditions, the disruption or destruction of social and family networks, and limited access to support services (Habtamu et al., 2023; Mburu et al., 2022; WHO, 2021). Barriers to addressing SGBV can include distance, cost, language barriers, cultural norms surrounding disclosure, and fear of retaliation, all of which may discourage help-seeking and reporting (Habtamu et al., 2023; UNHCR, 2022). The United Nations General Assembly (1993) defines violence against women as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm. This includes violence occurring within the family, such as battering and marital rape, violence occurring within the wider community, such as rape and sexual harassment, and violence perpetrated or condoned by the State. State violence may include the use of sexual violence as a weapon of war, as seen during conflicts such as the Bosnian War (United Nations General Assembly, 1993; Wing, 1994).

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is one form of SGBV that occurs within intimate relationships and may involve physical, sexual, and emotional abuse (Habtamu et al., 2023; United Nations General Assembly, 1993). Researchers have found that when men are exposed to increased violence during war, conflict, or broader societal disruption, this can contribute to a rise in violence against women and other family members (Krug et al., 2002). Refugee women, in particular, often experience elevated levels of SGBV both before and after migration (Human Rights Watch, 2000; Krug et al., 2002; Mburu et al., 2022). Raftery et al. (2022) similarly found that gender-based violence can intensify during forced migration, particularly where women face unsafe migration routes and limited protection.

Keygnaert et al. (2014) expanded on this by studying refugee women in Morocco who had experienced gender-based violence. They found that women were more vulnerable to violence during forced migration when they lacked family or community support. They also noted that refugee status itself can heighten vulnerability, particularly when women lack essential documents such as visas, identification, or travel papers (Keygnaert et al., 2014). Similarly, Krause et al. (2015), in research conducted in a Ugandan refugee camp, found that gender-based violence often followed a recurring pattern, with periods of violence escalating in both severity and frequency over time. Their findings pointed to a cyclical pattern of violence that intensified in conditions of ongoing insecurity. Sullivan et al. (2021) likewise found that different stages of forced migration, including conflict, displacement, transit, and resettlement, can each increase women’s risk of gender-based violence. Like Krause et al. (2015), Sullivan et al. (2021) found that such violence was rarely an isolated event, but instead often persisted over time, including after arrival in the host country.

The cumulative and damaging impact of gender-based violence can profoundly undermine women’s safety, wellbeing, and mental health (Mburu et al., 2022). Tankink and Richters (2007), in their research with Sudanese refugee women who had experienced gender-based violence, found that silence was often used as a coping strategy. Pre-migration cultural stigma surrounding disclosure meant that many women did not speak openly about their experiences, which in turn contributed to under-reporting and disrupted recovery. Troisi et al. (2021) reported similar findings, showing that gender-based violence shaped the experiences of migrant women during both forced migration and resettlement. For many women in their study, violence was perpetrated by intimate partners or family members (Troisi et al., 2021). In some cases, the abuse continued post-migration, particularly where abusive partners migrated alongside them and support systems in host countries remained limited (Troisi et al., 2021).

Exposure to gender-based violence has also been associated with a heightened risk of depression, anxiety, and trauma-related symptoms (Sullivan et al., 2021; Troisi et al., 2021). Research suggests that once violence has become established within an intimate relationship, it is often likely to continue (Krause et al., 2015; Sullivan et al., 2021). More recent work has also shown that the effects of gender-based violence extend well beyond immediate physical injuries such as bruises or fractures, and may include long-term psychological trauma (Kuupiel et al., 2024). Survivors are at increased risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation (Kuupiel et al., 2024). According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2014), trauma results from events experienced as harmful or life-threatening and may lead to lasting adverse effects on functioning and wellbeing. These effects may be evident in survivors’ behaviour, including hypervigilance, avoidance, and difficulties trusting others. For example, Habtamu et al. (2023), in their research with displaced women in Ethiopia, found that survivors of gender-based violence were particularly vulnerable to PTSD and depression following repeated exposure to abuse.

Mburu et al. (2022) further found that adaptive responses developed in the context of trauma, such as prioritising safety and autonomy, can continue to shape women’s post-migration experiences. At the same time, exposure to host societies with more egalitarian gender norms may support some women in questioning or rejecting harmful aspects of pre-migration gender expectations (Taheri et al., 2024). Taken together, the relationship between gender-based violence, trauma, and migration highlights the importance of understanding women’s behaviours, coping strategies, and decision-making within their social and cultural contexts, as well as the ways in which violence may shape adaptation and post-migration change.

References

Human Rights Watch. (2000). Seeking protection: Addressing sexual and domestic violence in Tanzania’s refugee camps. Human Rights Watch.

Keygnaert, I., Dialmy, A., Manço, A., Keygnaert, J., Vettenburg, N., Roelens, K., & Temmerman, M. (2014). Sexual violence and sub-Saharan migrants in Morocco: A community-based participatory assessment using respondent driven sampling. Globalization and Health, 10(1), 32.

King, A. R. (2025). A qualitative study of acculturation and intimate relationships among refugee women in Switzerland

Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds.). (2002). World report on violence and health. World Health Organization.

Kuupiel, D., Lateef, M. A., Adzordor, P., Mchunu, G. G., & Pillay, J. D. (2024). Injuries and/or trauma due to sexual gender-based violence among survivors in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic scoping review of research evidence. Archives of Public Health, 82, 78.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach (HHS Publication No. SMA 14-4884). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Tankink, M., & Richters, A. (2007). Silence as a coping strategy: The case of refugee women in the Netherlands from South-Sudan who experienced sexual violence in the context of war. In B. Drožđek & J. P. Wilson (Eds.), Voices of trauma (pp. 191–210). Springer.

Troisi, G., Margherita, G., & Caffieri, A. (2022). Migrant women and gender-based violence: Focus group with operators. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community.

United Nations General Assembly. (1993, December 20). Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (A/RES/48/104). United Nations.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2022). Gender-based violence. UNHCR.

Wing, A. K. (1994). A title check is still needed here. I did not verify this one from a primary source strongly enough to format it safely.

World Health Organization. (2021, March 9). Devastatingly pervasive: 1 in 3 women globally experience violence. World Health Organization.

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